Assessing the Energy Components and the Environmental Impacts of the Different Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Production Systems using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Method in Mazandaran

Document Type : Scientific - Research

Authors

1 Department of Agronomy, Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University, Sari, Iran

2 Department of Agronomy, Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University, Sari, Iran.

3 Professor, Genetics and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute of Tabarestan, Department of Agronomy, Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University, Sari, Iran.

4 Assistant Professor, Department of Biosystem Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University, Sari, Iran.

5 PhD in Agricultural Mechanization Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran

Abstract

Introduction
 Rice, as the second most strategic crop, is the most important cereal after wheat. In Iran, rice is so essential that people consume it as part of their main meal at least once a day. Due to the increase in consumption inputs in conventional paddy systems, chemical control of rice diseases and consequently increase in consumption costs, irreparable environmental damage of these systems, always adds to the need to pay attention to alternative systems. Prediction of agricultural energy output and environmental impacts play the most important role in conservation of environment as well as energy management. A wide range of methods tapping into environmental performances related to agricultural activities have been proposed, among which the known life cycle assessment (LCA) method is deemed mostly employed. As a standard method which aims for holistic evaluation of the environmental resources and impact, LCA measures the process of a product's entire life cycle, or in other words, the analysis of the possible environmental impacts any product bears during their life would be assessed by LCA.
 
Materials and Methods
 This research was conducted in rice fields located in Mazandaran province in Babol, Fereydounkenar, and Amol counties as the main rice paddy center of Mazandaran province, in 2019 cropping season. Each of the systems was examined in terms of energy components and environmental impacts. In this study, to classify and quantify the environmental effects of rice production in various cropping systems using LCA method and also the energy components and energy efficiency in these systems are addressed. Therefore, in order to evaluate the emission of greenhouse gases and energy in paddy fields, the required information was randomly collected some farms through direct interviews with the rice growers of Mazandaran. In this regard, the sample size is calculated by using Cochran's formula.
 
Results and Discussion
 The findings of this study showed that the maximum amount of input energy equal to 60225.42 MJ / ha in conventional systems and the minimum values of 18662.14 MJ / ha were allocated to the organic system. Diesel fuel input energy had the largest share of total input energy. The highest energy efficiency of 0.17 kg per MJ and energy ratio of 2.57 was allocated to the organic system. Also, the evaluation of life cycle in rice production showed that in the global warming group of environmental impact by CML2 baseline method, for each ton of paddy produced in conventional, low-input and organic systems, respectively, about 2408.90, / 85.90, respectively. 1777 and 7993/1193 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent to the atmosphere are released. Direct emissions from on-farm activities in all three studied systems have played a major role in increasing global warming. The source of these pollutants is the combustion of diesel used in agricultural implements and machinery, as well as the emission of nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen oxides and other nitrogenous compounds resulting from the use of nitrogen fertilizer.
 
Conclusion
 According to the results of this research work, from the environmental perspective, organic system has highly the best potential of being recommended following by low external input system in order to reach environmentally friendly agriculture as sustainable cultural operations in comparison with conventional cultivation practices. Farther, the results showed that the conventional system had the highest amount of total emissions and then the low input system is in the next position. Obviously, the organic system is the most environmentally friendly system and the conventional system has the highest amount of emissions. In order to give a broader evaluation of the organic and some low input systems, studies on such issues should be highly continued.
 
Acknowledgements
 Thanks and appreciation from the financial support provided by the Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding Engineering, Sari Agricultural Sciences and the Natural Resources University of Sari, Iran.
 
 

Keywords

Main Subjects


AghaAlikhani, M.., Kazemi Poshtmasari, H. and Habibzadeh, F., 2013. Energy use pattern in rice production: A case study from Mazandaran province. Iran. Energy Conversion and Management 69: 157-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.01.034
Bacenetti, J., Fusi, A., Negri, M., Bocchi, S., and Fiala, M., 2016. Organic production systems: Sustainability assessment of rice in Italy. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 225: 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2016.03.046
Banaeian, N., and Zangeneh, M., 2011. Study on energy efficiency in corn production of Iran. Energy 36: 5394-5402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.06.052
Baruah, D., and Dutta, P., 2007. An investigation into the energy use in relation to yield of rice (Oryza sativa) in Assam, India. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 120: 185-191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.09.003
Bautista E.G., and Minowa T., 2010. Analysis of the energy for different rice production systems in the Philippines. The Philippine Agricultural Scientist 93(3): 346-57.
Blengini, G.A., and Busto, M., 2009. The life cycle of rice: LCA alternative agri-food chain management systems in Vercelli (Italy). Journal of Environmental Management 90(3): 1512-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.10.006
Bockari-Gevao, S.M., Bin Wan Ismail, W.I., Yahya, A., and Wan, C.C., 2005. Analysis of energy consumption in lowland rice-based cropping system of Malaysia. Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology 27(4): 820-826.
Brentrup, F., Küsters, J., Kuhlmann, H., and Lammel, J., 2004 a. Environmental impact assessment of agricultural production systems using the life cycle assessment methodology: I. Theoretical concept of a LCA method tailored to crop production. European Journal of Agronomy 20(3): 247-264.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S1161-0301(03)00024-8
Brentrup, F., Küsters, J., Lammel, J., Barraclough, P., and Kuhlmann, H., 2004 b. Environmental impact assessment of agricultural production systems using the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology: II. The application to N fertilizer use in winter wheat production systems. European Journal of Agronomy 20(3): 265-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1161-0301(03)00039-X
Chamsing, A., Salokhe, V.M., Gajendra, S., 2006. Energy consumption analysis for selected crops in different regions of Thailand. Agricultural Engineering International: The CIGR E Journal 2006: 8.
Chauhan, N.S., Mohapatra, P.K.J., and Pandey, K.P., 2006. Improving energy productivity in paddy production through bench markingd an application of data envelopment analysis. Energy Conversion and Management 47: 1063-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2005.07.004
Dalgaard, T., Halberg, N., and Fenger, J., 2000. Fossil energy use and emissions of greenhouse gases – three scenarios for conversion to 100% organic farming in Denmark. In: E. Van Lerland, A.Q. Lansink, and E. Schmieman. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Sustainable Energy: New Challenges for Agriculture and Implications for Land Use, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Chapter 7.2.1, 11 p.
Erdal, G., Esengun, K., Erdal, H., and Gunduz, O., 2007. Energy use and economical analysis of sugar beet production in Tokat province of Turkey. Energy 32: 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2006.01.007
Eskandari Cherati, F., Bahrami, H., and Asakereh, A., 2011. Energy survey of mechanized and traditional rice production system in Mazandaran Province of Iran. African Journal of Agricultural Research 6(11): 2565-70. DOI: 10.5897/AJAR11.516
Eskandari, H., and Attar, S., 2015. Energy comparison of two rice cultivation systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42: 666-671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.050
Esitken, A., Ercisli, S., Karlidag, H., and Sahin, F., 2005. Potential use of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in organic apricot production. In: Proceedings of the international scientific conference of environmentally friendly fruit growing, Tartu-Estonia pp. 90–97.
Esengun, K., Gunduz, O., and Erdal, G., 2007. Input–output energy analysis in dry apricot production of Turkey. Energy Conversation Management 48: 592–598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2006.06.006
FAO., 2018. FAO statistical year book, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
Fangueiro, D., Becerra, D., Albarrán, Á., Peña, D., Sanchez-Llerena, J., Rato-Nunes, J.M., and López-Piñeiro, A., 2017. Effect of tillage and water management on GHG emissions from Mediterranean rice growing ecosystems. Atmospheric Environment 150: 303-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.11.020
Finkbeiner, M., Inaba, A. Tan, R., Christiansen, K., and Klüppel, H.J., 2006. The new international standards for life cycle assessment: ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 11(2): 80-85.
Gajaseni, J., 1995. Energy analysis of wetland rice systems in Thailand. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 52: 173e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(94)00536-N
Hatcho, N., Matsuno, Y., Kochi, K., and Nishishita, K., 2012. Assessment of environment-friendly rice farming through life cycle assessment (LCA). Chiang Mai University. Journal of Natural Science 11: 403–408.
He, X., Qiao, Y., Liang, L., Knudsen, M.T., and Martin, F., 2018. Environmental life cycle assessment of long-term organic rice production in subtropical China. Journal of Cleaner Production 176: 880-888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.045
Heijungs, R., Guiné e, J.B., Huppes, G., Lankreijer, R.M., Udo de Haes, H.A., Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Ansems, A.M.M., Eggels, P.G., Van Duin, R., de Goede, H.P., 1992. Environmental life cycle assessment of productsÐBackgrounds and Environmental life cycle assessment of productsÐGuide. CML, TNO, B&G, Leiden.
Hokazono, S., Hayashi, K., and Sato, M., 2009. Potentialities of organic and sustainable rice production in Japan from a life cycle perspective. Agronomy Research 7 (Special issue I): 257–262.
Hokazono, S., and Hayashi, K., 2012. Variability in environmental impacts during conversion from conventional to organic farming: A comparison among three rice production systems in Japan. Journal of Cleaner Production 28: 101-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.12.005
Hokazono, S., and Hayashi, K., 2015. Life cycle assessment of organic paddy rotation systems using land and product-based indicators: a case study in Japan. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 20(8): 1061–1075.
Kazemi, H., Kamkar, B., Lakzaei, S., Badsar, M., and Shahbyki, M., 2015. Energy flow analysis for rice production in different geographical regions of Iran. Energy 84: 390-396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.03.005
Khan, M.A., Awan, I.U., and Zafar, J., 2009. Energy requirement and economic analysis of rice production in the western part of Pakistan. Soil and Environmental 28(1): 60-70.
Khorramdel, S., Shabahang, J., and Amin­ Ghafouri., A., 2017. Evaluation of environmental impacts for Rice agroecosystems using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Iranian Journal of Applied Ecology 5(18): 1-14 (In Persian). DOI: 10.18869/acadpub.ijae.5.18.1
Kizilaslan, H., 2009. Input-output energy analysis of cherries production in Tokat Province of Turkey. Applied Energy 86: 1354-1358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2008.07.009
Koga, N., and Tajima, R., 2011. Assessing energy efficiencies and greenhouse gas emissions under bioethanol-oriented paddy rice production in northern Japan. Journal of Environmental Management 92: 967-973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.11.008
IPCC. 2006. IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. 2 Inst Glob Environ Strateg Hayama, Japan.
ISO, 1997. ISO 14040-Environmental management-Life cycle assessment-principles and framework. p. 14.
Mostashari-Rad, F., Ghasemi-Mobtaker, H., Taki, M., Ghahderijani, M., Kaab, A., Chau., K.W., and Nabavi-Pelesaraei., A., 2021. Exergoenvironmental damages assessment of horticultural crops using ReCiPe2016 and cumulative exergy demand frameworks. Journal of Cleaner Production 278: 123788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123788
Mohammadi, A., Rafiee, S., Jafari, A., Keyhani, A., Dalgaard, T., Trydeman Knudsen, M., Nguyen, T., Borek, R., and Hermansen, J.E., 2015. Joint life cycle assessment and data envelopment analysis for the benchmarking of environmental impacts in rice paddy production. Journal of Cleaner Production 106: 521-532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05.008
Mousavi-Avval, S.H., Rafiee, S., Jafari, A., and Mohammadi, A., 2011. Improving energy use efficiency of canola production using data envelopment analysis (DEA) approach. Energy 36: 2765-2772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.02.016
Nabavi-Pelesaraei, A., Rafiee, S., Mohtasebi, S.S., Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H. and Chau, K.W., 2018. Integration of artificial intelligence methods and life cycle assessment to predict energy output and environmental impacts of paddy production. Science of the Total Environment 631: 1279-1294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.088
Nabavi-Pelesaraei, A., Rafiee, S., Mohtasebi, S.S., Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., and Chau, K.W., 2019. Comprehensive model of energy, environmental impacts and economic in rice milling factories by coupling adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system and life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production 217: 742-756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.228
Nassiri, M.S., and Singh, S., 2009. Study on energy use efficiency for paddy crop using data envelopment analysis (DEA) technique. Applied Energy 86: 1320-1325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2008.10.007
Nemecek, T., Kägi, T., and Blaser, S., 2007. Life cycle inventories of agricultural production systems. Final report ecoinvent v2. 0 No 15. https://db.ecoinvent.org/
Nemecek, T., Huguenin-Elie, O., Dubois, D., Gaillard, G., Schaller, B., and Chervet, A., 2011. Life cycle assessment of Swiss farming systems: II. Extensive and intensive production. Agricultural System 104: 233-245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2010.07.007
Ovtit-Canavate, J., and Hernanz, J.L., 1999. Energy analysis and saving. In CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering. Energy and Biomass Engineering. ASAE Publication. MI., p. 13-23.
Ozkan, B, Fert, C, and Karadeniz, F., 2007. Energy and cost analysis for greenhouse and open-field grape production. Energy 32: 1500e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2006.09.010
Ozkan, B., Akcaoz, H., and Fert, C., 2011. Energy inputs and crop yield relationships in greenhouse winter crop tomato production. Renewable Energy 36(11): 3217-3221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2011.03.042
Pennington, D.W., Potting, J., Finnveden, G., Lindeijer, E., Jolliete, O., Rydberg, T., and Rebitzer, G., 2004. Life cycle assessment Part 2: Current impact assessment practice. Environmental. International 30: 721–739.
Pishgar-Komleh, S.H., Sefeedpari, P., and Rafiee, S., 2011. Energy and economic analysis of rice production under different farm. Energy 36: 5824-5831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.08.044
Rathke, G.W., and Diepenbrock, W., 2006. Energy balance of winter oil seed rape cropping as related to nitrogen supply and preceding crop. European Journal of Agronomy 24: 35-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2005.04.003
Rebitzer, G., Ekvall, T., Frischknecht, R., Hunkeler, D., Norris, G., Rydberg, T., Schmidt, W., Suh, S., Weidema, B.P., and Pennington, D.W., 2004. Life cycle assessment. Part 1: Framework, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, and applications. Environmental International 30: 701-720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2003.11.005
Risoud, B., 2000. Energy efficiency of various French farming systems: Questions and sustainability. In: International Conference on Sustainable Energy: New Challenges for Agriculture and Implications for Land Use, Organized by Wageningen University, Netherlands, May PP: 18-20.
Saenjan, P., and Saisompan, C., 2004. Economic return of rice production from methane mitigated rice yields. Agriculture 20(3): 259-271.
Sahle, A., and Potting, J., 2013. Environmental life cycle assessment of Ethiopian rose cultivation. Science of the Total Environment 443: 163-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.10.048
Salami, P., and Ahmadi, H., 2010. Energy inputs and outputs in a chickpea production system in Kurdistan, Iran. African Crop Science Journal 18(2): 51-57. DOI: 10.4314/acsj.v18i2.65796
Schröder, J.J., Aarts, H.F.M., Ten Berge, H.F.M., Van Keulen, H., and Neeteson, J.J., 2003. An evaluation of whole farm nitrogen balances and related indices for efficient nitrogen use. European Journal of Agronomy 20: 33-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1161-0301(03)00070-4
Steiner, A., Martonakova, H., and Guziova, Z., 2003. Environmental Governance Sourcebook. Bratislava, Slovakia: UNDP Regional Bureau for Europe and the Commonwealth of Indepencent States.
Tabatabaie, S.M.H., Rafiee, S., Keyhani, A., and Ebrahimi, A., 2013. Energy and economic assessment of prune production in Tehran province of Iran. Journal of Cleaner Production 39: 280-284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.07.052
Truong, T.T.A., Fry, J., Van Hoang, P., and Ha, H.H., 2017. Comparative energy and economic analyses of conventional and System of Rice Intensification (SRI) methods of rice production in Thai Nguyen Province, Vietnam. Paddy and Water Environment1 5(4): 931-941.
Xu, X., Zhang, B., Liu, Y., Xue, Y., and Di, B., 2013. Carbon footprints of rice production in five typical rice districts in China. Acta Ecologica Sinica 33: 227-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2013.05.010
Yodkhum, S., Gheewala, S.H., and Sampattagul, S., 2017. Life cycle GHG evaluation of organic rice production in northern Thailand. Journal of Environmental Management 196: 217-223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.004
Yousefi, M., Khoramivafa, M. and Damghani, A.M., 2017. Water footprint and carbon footprint of the energy consumption in sunflower agroecosystems. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 24: 19827-19834.
Yousefi, M., and Mohammadi, A., 2011. Economical analysis and energy use efficiency in alfalfa production systems in Iran. Scientific Research and Essays 6: 2332–2336. DOI: 10.5897/SRE11.015
Yuan, S., and Peng, S., 2017. In put-output energy analysis of rice production in different crop management practices in central China. Energy 141: 1124-1132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.10.007
 
CAPTCHA Image
Volume 14, Issue 3 - Serial Number 53
September 2022
Pages 429-448
  • Receive Date: 11 January 2021
  • Revise Date: 18 April 2021
  • Accept Date: 26 May 2021
  • First Publish Date: 26 May 2021