Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for Wheat Production Systems of Iran: 2- Spatial Comparison over the Country

Document Type : Scientific - Research

Authors

Ferdowsi University of Mashhad

Abstract

Introduction
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a well-known and accurate method for comparison of environmental impacts of human activities including different agricultural management systems. Since agricultural activities are known as an important source of environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emission, LCA have been extensively applied for several tree and crop species around the country. However, these researches are generally conducted at field or district scales and due to variation in agronomic practices and input levels, the results cannot extended to regional or national level. In this paper using spatial upscaling method the results of LCA for wheat production systems with different level of inputs were extended to province and the results were subjected to statistical classification methods for comparison of impacts between provinces.
Materials and Methods
In this research the results of LCA for low, medium and high input wheat production systems of the country were upscaled to 14 provinces, details on LCA analysis of these systems is provided. For each province contribution of three management systems in cultivated area and wheat yield were extracted from official databases. Using these data the intensity of seven impact groups available from LCA were estimated for each province by linear upscaling method as described. Standardized values of seven impact categories over 14 provinces were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) to compare provinces for overall impacts and separately for each impact category. In addition a normalized environmental index which integrates all impacts in a single index was calculated for direct comparison between provinces.
Results and Discussion
Results indicated that studied provinces had wide range of land use efficiency. Khozestan province with 18% of country wheat production had the lowest land use efficiency where 4271 m2 land is needed per ton wheat grain while it was the lowest (2079 m2) in Tehran. The highest per hectare global warming potential and ecotoxicity was obtained for Tehran province where contribution of high input systems in total cultivated area was at the maximum. However, per ton grain Hamadan and Khozestan provinces had respectively, the lowest and the highest global warming potential. Classification with principal component analysis (PCA) showed that difference between provinces in addition to yield, was highly related to the percentage distribution of low, medium and high input systems in total cultivated area. Comparison of provinces with a normalized environmental index showing the integrated effects of seven impact groups confirmed the results of PCA. Based on the results, taking into account all impact categories, production of one ton wheat grain in Hamadan had the lowest environmental impact between 14 provinces and Khozestan showed the highest impacts for production of the same amount of grain yield. In wheat production systems in Iran with high input management, increasing yield level above 4 t ha-1 may result to severe per hectare environmental impacts which cannot be compensated for by yield increment.

Conclusion
It is concluded that at current level of resource use efficiency in wheat production systems of the country, increasing wheat yield through intensification is not a reliable approach and will be led to strict environmental consequences.

Keywords


Anderson, T.W. 1984. An Introduction to Multivariate Statistical Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Bazrgar, A.B. 2011. Environmental assessment of Khoraszn sugar beet production systems using LCA. PhD Dissertation, Faculty of Plant Production, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources. (In Prsian with English Summary)
Bengtsson, M., Carlson, R., Molander, S., and Steen, B. 1998. An approach for handling geographical information in life cycle assessment using a relational database. Journal of Hazardous Materials 61: 67–75.
Bjorklund, A.E. 2003. Survey of approaches to improve reliability in LCA. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 7(2): 64-72.
Bockstaller, C., and Girardin, P. 2003. How to validate environmental indicators. Agricultural Systems 76: 639–653.
Bouman, B.A.M., Jansen, H.G.P., Schipper, R.A., Nieuwenhuyse, A., Hengsdijk, H., and Bouma, J. 1999. A framework for integrated biophysical and economic land use analysis at different scales. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 75: 55-73.
Brentrup, F., Kusters, J., Lammel, J., Barraclough, P., and Kuhlmann, H. 2004. Environmental impact assessment of agricultural production systems using the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology– 2, The application to N fertilizer use in winter wheat production systems. European Journal of Agronomy 20(3): 265-79.
Brentrup, F., Küsters, J., Kuhlmann, H., and Lammel, J. 2001. Application of the life cycle assessment methodology to agricultural production: an example of sugar beet production with different forms of nitrogen fertilisers. European Journal of Agronomy 14: 221-233.
Charles, R., Jolliet, O., Gaillard, G., and Pellet, D. 2006 Environmental analysis of intensity level in wheat crop production using life cycle assessment. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 113: 216-225.
Dalgaard, T., Halberg, N., and Porter, J. 2001. A model for fossil energy use in Danish agriculture used to compare organic and conventional farming. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 87(1): 51-65.
Dalgaard, T., Hutchings, N.J., and Porter, J.R. 2003. Agroecology, scaling and interdisciplinarity. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 100: 39-51.
Deike, S., Pallutt, B., Melander, B., Strassemeyer, J., and Christen, O. 2008. Long-term productivity and environmental effects of arable farming as affected by crop rotation, soil tillage intensity and strategy of pesticide use: a case-study of two long-term field experiments in Germany and Denmark. European Journal of Agronomy 29: 191–199.
FAO, 2013. FAO Statistical Yearbook 2013: World Food and Agriculture. FAO, Rome.
Gasol, C.M., Gabarrell, X., Anton, A., Rigola, M., Carrasco, J., Ciria, P., Solano, M.L., and Rieradevall, J. 2007. Life cycle assessment of a Brassica carinata bioenergy cropping system in southern Europe. Biomass and Bioenergy 31: 543–555.
Grace, J., Van Gardingen, P.R., and Luan, J. 1997. Tackling Large-scale Problems by Scaling up. In: Gardingen, P.R., Foody, G.M., Curran, P.J. (Eds.), Scaling-up From Cell to Landscape. Society for Experimental Biology. Seminar Series 63, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 0-521-47109-5 p. 7–16, 386 pp.
Haas, G., Wetterich, and Fand Geier, U. 2000. Life cycle assessment framework in agriculture on the farm level. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 5(6): 345-348.
Haas, G., Wetterich, F., and Kpke, U. 2001. Comparing intensive, extensified and organic grassland farming in southern Germany by process life cycle assessment. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 83(1–2): 43–53.
Hayer, F., Bockstaller, C., Gaillard, G., Mamy, L., and Nemecek Strassemeyer, T.J. 2010. Multi-criteria Comparison of Eco-toxicity Models Focused on Pesticides. In: Notarnicola, B. (Ed.), 7th International Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector. Bari, Italy p. 305-310.
Heller, M.C., and Keoleian, G.A. 2003. Assessing the sustainability of the US food system: a life cycle perspective. Agricultural Systems 76: 1007–1041.
Hoffman, L., Weidema, B., Kristiansen, K., and Ersboll, A. 1994. Statistical analysis and uncertainties in relation to LCA, Special Reports No. 1, LCA-Nordic, Nordic Council of Ministers, Report 1995:503, Copenhagen.
Hülsbergen, K.J., Feil, B., and Diepenbrock, W. 2002. Rates of nitrogen application required to achieve maximum energy efficiency for various crops: results of along-term experiment. Field Crops Research 77: 61-76.
Huppes, G., and Ishikawa, M. 2005. A framework for quantified eco-efficiency analysis. Journal of Industrial Ecology 9: 25-41.
IPCC. 2006. IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual, Vol. 4.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). 2006. ISO 14040: 2006(E) Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment– Principles and Framework.
Jackson, J.E. 1991. A User’s Guide to Principal Components. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Keating, B.A., Carberry, P.S., Bindraban, P.S., Asseng, S., Meinke, H., and Dixon, J. 2010. Eco-efficient agriculture: concepts, challenges and opportunities. Crop Science 50 (Supplement 1): S-109–S-119.
Khoshnevisan, A., Rafiee, S., Omid, M., Keihani, A., and Movahedi, M. 2013. Evaluation of energy and environmental indices of potato crop using life cycle assessment: A case study on Fereidon shahr county, Isfehan province. Iranian Journal of Biosystem Engineering 44(1): 57-66. (In Persian with English Summary)
Lindeijer, E., Mu¨ller-Wenk, R., and Steen, B. 2002. Impact Assessment of Resources and Land Use. In: Lindeijer, E., Müller-Wenk, R., Steen, B., Udo de Haes, HA., Finnveden, G., Goedkoop, M., Hauschild, M., Hertwich, E.G., Hofstetter, P., Jolliet, O., Klo¨pffer, W., Krewitt, W., Lindeijer, EW., Mu¨ ller-Wenk, R., Olsen, S.I., Pennington, D.W., Potting, J., Steen, B. (Eds.). Life Cycle Impact Assessment: Striving Towards Best Practice. Pensacola, USA: SETAC; p. 11-64.
Meisterling, K., Samaras, C., and Schweizer, V. 2009. Decisions to reduce greenhouse gases from agriculture and product transport: LCA case study of organic and conventional wheat. Journal of Cleaner Production 17: 222–230.
Milai Canals, L.J., Romanya, and Cowell, S.J. 2007. Method for assessing impacts on life support functions (LSF) related to the use of ‘fertile land’ in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Journal of Cleaner Production 15: 1426-1440.
MAJ, 2010. Ministry of Jehad-e-Keshavarzi of Iran, Statistical Database. Crop Production Statistics 1389-90. www.maj.ir/portal/Home/Default.aspx (In Persian)
Mosier, A.R., Halvorson, A.D., Peterson, G.A., Robertson, G.P., and Sherrod, L. 2005. Measurement of net global warming potential in three agroecosystems. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 72(1): 67-76.
Nassiri Mahallati, M., and Koocheki, A. 2017a. Life cycle assessment (LCA) for wheat production systems of Iran: 1- Comparison of inputs level. Journal of Agroecology 9(4): 972-992. (In Persian with English Summary)
Nassiri Mahallati, M., and Koocheki, A. 2017b. Trend analysis of nitrogen use and productivity in cereal production systems of Iran. Journal of Agroecology, 9(2): 360-378. (In Persian with English Summary)
Nemecek, T, Hayer, F., Bonnin, E., Carrouee, B., Schneider, A., and Vivier, C. 2015. Designing eco-efficient crop rotations using life cycle assessment of crop combinations. European Journal of Agronomy 65: 40-51.
Nemecek, T., Huguenin, O., Dubois, D., and Gaillard, G. 2011a. Life cycle assessment of Swiss farming systems: I. Integrated and organic farming. Agricultural Systems 104: 217-232.
Nemecek, T., Huguenin, O., Dubois, D., Gaillard, G., Schaller, B., and Chervet, A. 2011b. Life cycle assessment of Swiss farming systems: II. Extensive and intensive production. Agricultural Systems 104: 233-245
Nemecek, T., and Kägi, T. 2007. Life cycle inventories of Swiss and European agricultural production systems. Final report ecoinvent v2.0 No.15a. Agrospace Reckenholz-Taenikon Research Station ART, Swiss Center of Life Cycle Inventories, Zurich and Dubendorf, CH.
Payraudeau, S., and Van der Werf, H.M.G. 2005. Environmental impact assessment for a farming region: a review of methods. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107: 1-19.
Roy, P., Nei, D., Orikasa, T., Xu, Q., Okadome, H., Nakamura, N., and Shiina, T. 2009. A review of life cycle assessment (LCA) on some food products. Journal of Food Engineering 90: 1–10.
Sands, G.R., and. Podmore, T.H. 2000. A generalized environmental sustainability index for agricultural systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 79: 29–41.
Schroder, J.J., Aarts, H.F.M., ten Berge, H.F.M., van Keulen, H., and Neeteson, J.J. 2003. An evaluation of whole-farm nitrogen balances and related indices for efficient nitrogen use. European Journal of Agronomy 20: 33-44.
Steen, B. 1997. On uncertainty priority setting and sensitivity of LCA-based. Journal of Cleaner Production 5(4): 255-262.
Stein, A., Riley, J., and Halberg, N. 2001. Issues of scale for environmental indicators. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 87(2): 119–259.
Tilman, D., Cassman, K.G., Matson, P.A., Naylor, R., and Polasky, S. 2002. Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature 418: 671-677.
Tzilivakis, J., Jaggard, K., Lewis, K.A., May, M., and Warner, D.J. 2005. Environmental impact and economic assessment for UK sugar beet production systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107: 341-358.
Van der Werf, H.M.G., and Petit, J. 2002. Evaluation of the environmental impact of agriculture at the farm level: a comparison and analysis of 12 indicator-based methods. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 93: 131–145.
Zangeneh, M., Omid, M., and Akram, A. 2010. A comparative study on energy use and cost analysis of potato production under different farming technology in Hamadan province of Iran. Energy Conversion and Management 35: 2927-2933.
CAPTCHA Image